Pfiesteria

From Maryland Sea Grant Whatever Happened to Pfiesteria? Chesapeake Quarterly magazine The August 2007 issue of our mag- azine asks a series of questions about Pfiesteria over the past ten years. How did a media storm get started? Why did people get sick? How many people got sick? Does Pfiesteria pro- duce a toxin? Was there another fish killer? Articles include testimonials from 1997 and recent inter- views with doctors, scientists, and others touched by Pfiesteria. Read the issue online The Pfiesteria Files Now on DVD This hour-long, Emmy Award-winning docu- mentary, first released in 2001, is now avail- able on DVD. The pro- duction follows the scientific discoveries, medical mysteries, media wars, and poli- tical fallout that made Pfiesteria a household name. Order now

Pfiesteria piscicida Photo courtesy of Victor Lovko, Virginia Institute of Marine Science

In the summer of 1997, a microbe called Pfiesteria, first found in North Carolina waters, drew a fury of media attention and public concern when blamed for fish kills and human health problems in the Chesapeake Bay.

The events of that summer spurred decade-long investigations that continue today as researchers hunt for evidence of an elusive toxin or other mechanism by which Pfiesteria could kill fish or sicken people.

On this page you will find a selected bibliography listing scientific journal articles spanning the broad scope of Pfiesteria literature — from biological and ecological research to the role of the media in “Pfiesteria hysteria” — as well as links to other information.

Selected Pfiesteria Bibliography

Media
Karlodinium & Toxicity

Life History/Ecology

Anderson JT, Stoecker DK, Hood RR. 2003.
Formation of two types of cysts by a mixotrophic dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida
Marine Ecology-Progress Series 246: 95-104.

Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB. 2002.
The life cycle and toxicity of Pfiesteria piscicida revisited
Journal of Phycology 38 (6): 1261-1267.

Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB, Deamer-Melia NJ, et al. 2001.
Species of the toxic Pfiesteria complex, and the importance of functional type in data interpretation
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 667-679 Suppl. 5.

Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB, Deamer-Melia N. 2001.
Overview and present status of the toxic Pfiesteria complex (Dinophyceae)
Phycologia 40 (3): 186-214.

Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB. 1997.
Pfiesteria piscicida and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates: behavior, impacts, and environmental controls
Limnology and Oceanography 42 (5): 1052-1075 Part 2.

Garces E, Vila M, Maso M, et al. 2005.
Taxon-specific analysis of growth and mortality rates of harmful dinoflagellates during bloom conditions
Marine Ecology-Progress Series 301: 67-79.

Glibert PM, Burkholder JM. 2006.
Toward an emerging consensus on the ecology of Pfiesteria
Harmful Algae 5 (4): 339-341.

Hood RR, Zhang X, Glibert PA, et al. 2006.
Modeling the influence of nutrients, turbulence and grazing on Pfiesteria population dynamics
Harmful Algae 5 (4): 459-479.

Lewitus AJ, Wetz MS, Willis BM, et al. 2006.
Grazing activity of Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae) and susceptibility to ciliate predation vary with toxicity status
Harmful Algae 5 (4): 427-434.

Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, et al. 2002.
Reply to comment on the life cycle and toxicity of Pfiesteria piscicida revisited
Journal of Phycology 38 (6): 1268-1272.

Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, et al. 2002.
Life cycle of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae)
Journal of Phycology 38 (3): 442-463.

Marshall HG, Hargraves PE, Burkholder JM, et al. 2006.
Taxonomy of Pfiesteria (Dinophyceae)
Harmful Algae 5 (5): 481-496.

Steidinger K, Landsberg J, Richardson RW, et al. 2001.
Classification and identification of Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like species
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 661-665 Suppl. 5.

Stoecker DK, Parrow MW, Burkholder JM, et al. 2002.
Grazing by microzooplankton on Pfiesteria piscicida cultures with different histories of toxicity
Aquatic Microbial Ecology 28 (1): 79-85.

Toxin Production

Moeller PDR, Beauchesne KR, Huncik KM, et al. 2007.
Metal complexes and free radical toxins produced by Pfiesteria piscicida
Environmental Science & Technology 41 (4): 1166-1172.

Moeller PDR, Morton SL, Mitchell BA, et al. 2001.
Current progress in isolation and characterization of toxins isolated from Pfiesteria piscicida
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 739-743 Suppl. 5.

Fish Kills

Brownie C, Glasgow HB, Burkholder JM, et al. 2003.
Re-evaluation of the relationship between Pfiesteria and estuarine fish kills
Ecosystems 6 (1): 1-10.

Burkholder JM, Gordon AS, Moeller PD, et al. 2005.
Demonstration of toxicity to fish and to mammalian cells by Pfiesteria species: Comparison of assay methods and strains
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 (9): 3471-3476.

Drgon T, Saito K, Gillevet PM, et al. 2005.
Characterization of Pfiesteria ichthyocidal activity - Authors' reply
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 (10): 6464-6464.

Drgon T, Saito K, Gillevet PM, et al. 2005.
Characterization of ichthyocidal activity of Pfiesteria piscicida: Dependence on the dinospore cell density
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 (1): 519-529.

Dykstra MJ, Kane AS. 2000.
Pfiesteria piscicida and ulcerative mycosis of Atlantic menhaden - Current status of understanding
Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 12 (1): 18-25.

Glasgow HB, Burkholder JM, Mallin MA, et al. 2001.
Field ecology of toxic Pfiesteria complex species and a conservative analysis of their role in estuarine fish kills
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 715-730 Suppl. 5.

Gordon AS, Marshall HG, Shumway SE, et al. 2005.
Characterization of Pfiesteria ichthyocidal activity
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 (10): 6463-6463.

Lovko, VJ; Vogelbein, WK; Shields, JD; et al. 2003.
A new larval fish bioassay for testing the pathogenicity of Pfiesteria spp. (Dinophyceae)
Journal of Phycology 39 (3): 600-609.

Stow CA. 1999.
Assessing the relationship between Pfiesteria and estuarine fishkills
Ecosystems 2 (3): 237-241.

Tango P, Magnien R, Goshorn D, et al. 2006.
Associations between fish health and Pfiesteria spp. in Chesapeake Bay and mid-Atlantic estuaries
Harmful Algae 5 (4): 352-362.

Vogelbein WK, Lovko VJ, Shields JD, et al. 2002.
Pfiesteria shumwayae kills fish by micropredation not exotoxin secretion
Nature 418 (6901): 967-970.

Wang Q; Deeds JR; Place AR; et al. 2005.
Dinoflagellate community analysis of a fish kill using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
Harmful Algae 4 (1): 151-162.

Human Health

Physical & Cognitive Symptoms

Collier DN, Burke WA. 2002.
Pfiesteria complex organisms and human illness
Southern Medical Journal 95 (7): 720-726.

El-Nabawi A, Quesenberry M, Saito K, Silbergeld E, et al. 2000.
The N-methyl-D-aspartate neurotransmitter receptor is a mammalian brain target for thee dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida toxin.
Toxicological Applications in Pharmacology 169: 84-93.

Grattan LM
Human health risks of exposure to estuary waters. 2001.
Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 7 (5): 1385-1391.

Grattan LM, Oldach D, Perl TM, et al. 1998.
Learning and memory difficulties after environmental exposure to waterways containing toxin-producing Pfiesteria or Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates
Lancet 352 (9127): 532-539.

Griffith D. 1999.
Exaggerating environmental health risk: the case of the toxic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria
Human Organization 58 (2): 119-127.

Haselow DT, Brown E, Tracy K, et al. 2001.
Gastrointestinal and respiratory tract symptoms following brief environmental exposure to aerosols during a Pfiesteria-related fish kill
Journal of Toxicological and Environmental Health A 63: 553-564.

Kleindinst JL, Anderson DM. 2001.
Pfiesteria-related educational products and information resources available to the public, health officials, and researchers
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 695-698 Suppl. 5.

Levin ED, Blackwelder WP, Glasgow HB Jr et al. 2003.
Learning impairment caused by a toxin produced by Pfiesteria piscicida infused into the hippocampus of rats.
Neurotoxicology & Teratology 25: 419-426.

Levin ED. 2001.
A rat model of the cognitive impairment from Pfiesteria piscicida exposure
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 757-763 Suppl. 5.

Moe CL, Turf E, Oldach D, et al. 2001.
Cohort studies of health effects among people exposed to estuarine waters: North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 781-786 Suppl. 5.

Morris JG, Grattan LM, Wilson LA, et al. 2006.
Occupational exposure to Pfiesteria species in estuarine waters is not a risk factor for illness
Environmental Health Perspectives 114 (7): 1038-1043.

Morris JG. 2001.
Human health effects and Pfiesteria exposure: A synthesis of available clinical data
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 787-790 Suppl. 5.

Oldach D. 1999.
Regarding Pfiesteria
Human Organization 58: 459-460.

Schmechel DE, Koltai DC. 2001.
Potential human health effects associated with laboratory exposures to Pfiesteria piscicida
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 775-779 Suppl. 5.

Shoemaker RC, Lawson W. 2007.
Pfiesteria in estuarine waters: The question of health risks
Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (3): A126-A127.

Shoemaker RC. 2001.
Residential and recreational acquisition of possible estuary-associated syndrome: a new approach to successful diagnosis and treatment
Environmental Health Perspectives 109 (5): 791-796.

Shoemaker RC, Hudnell HK. 2001.
Possible estuary-associated syndrome: Symptoms, vision, and treatment
Environmental Health Perspectives 109 (5): 539-545.

Swinker M, Tester P, Attix DK, et al. 2002.
Human health effects of exposure to Pfiesteria piscicida: a review
Microbes and Infection 4 (7): 751-762.

Mass Psychogenic Illness

Bartholomew RE, Wessely S. 2002.
Protean nature of mass sociogenic illness
British Journal of Psychiatry 180: 300-306.

Bartholomew RE, Victor JS. 2004.
A social-psychological theory of collective anxiety attacks: the “Mad Gasser” reexamined
The Sociological Quarterly 45 (2): 229-248.

Boss LP. 1997.
Epidemic hysteria: a review of the published literature
Epidemiologic Reviews 19 (2): 233-243.

David AS, Wessely SC. 1995.
The legend of Camelford: medical consequences of a water pollution incident
Journal of Psychosomatic Research 39 (1): 1-9.

Jones, TF. 2000.
Mass psychogenic illness: role of the individual physician
American Family Physician 62 2649-2653, 2655-2656.

Jones TF, Craig AS, Hoy, D et al. 2000.
Mass psychogenic illness attributed to toxic exposure at a high school
The New England Journal of Medicine 342 (2) 96-100.

Talbot M. June 2, 2002.
Hysteria hysteria
New York Times Magazine pg. 42.

Wessely S. 2000.
Responding to mass psychogenic illness
The New England Journal of Medicine 342 (2) 129-130.

Pfiesteria & Ecosystem Management

Anderson DM, Glibert PM, Burkholder JM. 2002.
Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Nutrient sources, composition, and consequences
Estuaries 25 (4B): 704-726.

Boesch DF. 2000.
Measuring the health of the Chesapeake Bay: Toward integration and prediction
Environmental Research 82 (2): 134-142.

Bowers HA, Trice TM, Magnien RE, et al. 2006.
Detection of Pfiesteria spp. by PCR in surface sediments collected from Chesapeake Bay tributaries (Maryland)
Harmful Algae 5 (4): 342-351.

Bowers HA, Tengs T, Glasgow HB, et al. 2000
Development of real-time PCR assays for rapid detection of Pfiesteria piscicida and related dinoflagellates
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66 (11): 4641-4648.

Glibert PM, Magnien R, Lomas MW, et al. 2001.
Harmful algal blooms in the Chesapeake and coastal bays of Maryland, USA: Comparison of 1997, 1998, and 1999 events
Estuaries 24 (6A): 875-883.

Magnien RE. 2001.
State monitoring activities related to Pfiesteria-like organisms
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 711-714 Suppl. 5.

Magnien RE. 2001.
The dynamics of science, perception, and policy during the outbreak of Pfiesteria in the Chesapeake Bay
Bioscience 51 (10): 843-852.

Rubin C, McGeehin MA, Holmes AK, et al. 2001.
Emerging areas of research reported during the CDC National Conference on Pfiesteria: From biology to public health
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 633-637 Suppl. 5.

Samet J, Bignami GS, Feldman R, et al. 2001.
Pfiesteria: Review of the science and identification of research gaps. Report for the National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Environmental Health Perspectives 109: 639-659 Suppl. 5.

Silbergeld EK, Grattan L, Oldach D, et al. 2000.
Pfiesteria: Harmful algal blooms as indicators of human: Ecosystem interactions
Environmental Research 82 (2): 97-105.

Zhang XS, Anderson JT, Hood RR. 2003.
Modeling Pfiesteria piscicida population dynamics: a new approach for tracking size and mass in mixotrophic species
Marine Ecology-Progress Series 256: 29-44.

Social Science Implications

Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB. 1999.
Science ethics and its role in early suppression of the Pfiesteria issue
Human Organization 58 (4): 443-455.

Kempton W, Falk J. 2000.
Cultural Models of Pfiesteria: Toward Cultivating More Appropriate Risk Perceptions
Coastal Management 28:349-361.

Paolisso M, Chambers E. 2001.
Culture, politics, and toxic dinoflagellate blooms: The anthropology of Pfiesteria
Human Organization 60 (1): 1-12.

Media

Donohue GA, Olien CN, Tichenor PJ. 1989.
Structure and constraints on community newspaper gatekeepers
Journalism Quarterly 66 (4): 807-812.

Donohue GA, Olien CN, Tichenor PJ. 1985.
Reporting conflict by pluralism, newspaper type and ownership
Journalism Quarterly 62 (3): 489-499, 507.

Friedman SM, Dunwoody S, Rogers CL, eds. 1999.
Communicating uncertainty: media coverage of new and controversial science
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

Moore RC. 1999.
Where epistemology meets ecology: can environmental news reporting survive postmodernism?
Mass Communication & Society 2 (1/2): 3-25.

Olien CN. 1984.
Media and stages of social conflict
Columbia, SC: Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication.

Olien CN, Donohue GA, Tichenor PJ. 1978.
Community structure and media use
Journalism Quarterly 55 (3): 445-455.

Terlizzi DE. 2006.
Pfiesteria hysteria, agriculture, and water quality in the Chesapeake Bay: the Extension bridge over troubled waters
Journal of Extension 44 (5).
http://www.joe.org/joe/2006october/a3.shtml

Tichenor PJ, Donohue GA, Olien CN. 1980.
Community conflict & the press
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Tichenor PJ, Donohue GA, Olien CN. 1970.
Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge
Public Opinion Quarterly 34: 159-170.

Tichenor PJ, Nnaemeka CN, Olien CN, Donohue GA. 1977.
Community pluralism and perceptions of television content
Journalism Quarterly 54 (2): 254-261.

Vasterman P, Yzermans CJ, Dirkzwager AJE. 2005.
The role of the media and media hypes in the aftermath of disasters
Epidemiologic Reviews 27: 107-114.

Karlodinium & Toxicity

Adolf JE, Bachvaroff TR, Krupatkina DN, et al. 2006.
Species specificity and potential roles of Karlodinium micrum toxin
African Journal of Marine Science 28 (2): 415-419.

Deeds JR, Place AR. 2006.
Sterol-specific membrane interactions with the toxins from Karlodinium micrum (Dinophyceae) - a strategy for self-protection?
African Journal of Marine Science 28 (2): 421-425.

Deeds JR, Reimschuessel R, Place AR. 2006.
Histopathological effects in fish exposed to the toxins from Karlodinium micrum
Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 18 (2): 136-148.

Quesenberry MS, Saito K, Krupatkina DN, et al. 2002.
Bioassay for ichthyocidal activity of Pfiesteria piscicida: Characterization of a culture flask assay format
Journal of Applied Phycology 14 (4): 241-254.

Pfiesteria-related Links

US Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Library
www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/pfiest.shtml

Virginia Institute of Marine Science

Centers for Disease Control

Harmful Algal Blooms in Maryland
www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/hab/prorocentrum.html

Harmful Algae - Maryland Sea Grant
www.mdsg.umd.edu/issues/chesapeake/algae/harmful/